Mind soul Essay

1. How are Plato’s and Descartes’ views of the soul/self similar? Both Plato and Descartes believe that the soul/self is best (or only) to think and learn separate from the body and its faculties. According to Plato, â€Å"the soul reasons best without bodily senses. † Plato claims that sight, hearing, pain, and pleasure are a distraction to the soul in its search for reality, and that true knowledge can only be achieved with pure thought alone. â€Å"The body confuses the soul and prevents it from acquiring truth and wisdom whenever it is associated with it. † Descartes very similarly believes that the body and its faculties, namely imagination and again the senses, are â€Å"distinguished from the self as modes from a thing. † According to Descartes, the essence of the self consists entirely on being a thinking thing. The body can perceive pain and pleasure, but nothing beyond that, it is up to the intellect to â€Å"conduct its own inquiry into things external to us. † Thus, much like Plato, Descartes claims that it is this thinking essence, and not the body, and though alone, and not perception, that is the key to true knowledge. 2. How are Hume’s and Nietzsche’s views of the self similar, and how are they different? Both Hume and Nietzsche believe that the self is a summation of one’s actions and perceptions. According to Hume, the self is â€Å"a collection of perceptions in perpetual flux and movement. † There is no simplicity or identity in the self, but only an infinite system of perceptions in an infinite â€Å"variety of postures and situations. † These perceptions are then linked by the relations of cause and effect, which mutually influence, modify, alter, create, and destroy each other. Nietzsche similarly believes that the self is merely a relation of human desires to each other. According to Nietzsche, desires and pleasures or human drives are the â€Å"commander. † This human drive controls everything else, and the strongest drive is a tyrant, even â€Å"reason and conscience bow down. † Both philosophers ultimately agree that there is no pure forms or simplicity of the self, but that it is rather driven by actions and perceptions, as well as desires and pleasures. Hume’s main idea of the self is that there is no self that is stable over time, rather the self is merely a series of transient feelings, sensations, and impressions of oneself at any given moment. That is, there is no unified self that ties all perceptions together. Nietzsche’s main idea of the self is different as it reaches a little into the very motivation for the self and life. Nietzsche argues that the self is composed of drives, but unlike Hume, goes further to say that these drives almost vie with each other to be â€Å"the ultimate purpose of existence and the master of all other drives. † Nietzsche calls this the will to power and illustrates the point accordingly: â€Å"ever living body within which individuals treat each other as equals does to another body what the individuals within refrain from doing to each other. † The will to power is to grow, spread, seize, and become predominant; it not only drives the self but also the reality of the universe. 3. How is Plato’s view of the world’s creation similar to the ordinary religious view, and how is it different? Similar to the â€Å"ordinary religious view† of the creation of the world, Plato believes that the universe was created by a maker or a god, who not only made the world to be as excellent and supreme as nature would allow it, but who also endowed it with soul and intelligence. Plato’s views also coincide with the â€Å"ordinary religious view† when he claims that the universe is physical and changing, that god is good and fair, and that there is order rather than disorder. Plato however differs from the â€Å"ordinary religious view† of the creation of the world when he claims that there is a second type of universe other than the physical: eternal universe, that never changes. According to Plato, god uses this eternal model of the universe and the forms (of beauty, good, etc. ) as a template to create the existing world. â€Å"The universe resembles an ideal living thing of which all other ideal living things are a part of†¦ the ideal living thing comprehends in itself all other intelligible ideal living things. †

Training Plan

TEACHING/FACILITATION PLAN (Please remember to maintain anonymity of the area of work and the persons involved). Date on which the teaching occurred: | |Learning environment: | | | |Number/s and learning style/s of learner/s ( if known) : | | | |Learner’s previous knowledge, skills and attitude : | | | |Title of Session /Aim : | | | | | | | |Learning outcomes: | | | |Time frame: |Content: |Teaching methods used :(e. g. |Resources used: | | | |explanation, | | | | |Lecture, demonstration, | | | | |practice, questioning). | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Do not evaluate within in this plan, evaluate the assessment within your 1000 word reflection include: | |What would you do if you were to undertake this again? Would you alter anything with reference to your learning environment, timing, aim, learning | |outcomes, resources used etc? | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Essay 1 1. Discuss in detail the effectiveness of your teaching plan ie y ou may include discussion regarding the learning environment and the teaching methods used. 2. How did you establish the aim and learning outcomes discuss and reflect upon why these are important and useful in practice? The aim of the teaching plan was decided upon following a discussion with the student, when it was highlighted by the student that she felt under confident with taking manual blood pressure readings. The learning outcomes were formulated during a one to one session using Nicklin and Kenworthy (2003) who state that learning outcomes should be: SMART Specific †¢ Measureable †¢ Achievable †¢ Realistic †¢ Time framed Mager (1997) conjectures that without objectives you won’t be able to decide which content and procedures will get you to your aim. The formulation of learning outcomes communicates the assessor’s intent and are not open to interpretation. They give the student a clear understanding of what is expected of them. Clinical plac ements can be daunting for the student and having clear learning aims can help students focus on one aspect at a time thus helping to increase confidence. 3. Discuss learning styles and how knowledge of these may have influenced your choice of teaching methodsIt is generally acknowledged that learning styles indicate an individual’s preferred way of learning or how the individual acquires information (Fedder and Brent, 2005). Learning styles also influence the way in which learners master the goals and objectives of an educational programme (Rassool and Rawaf, 2008). (Word count for essay 1 =†¦.. words (NB: Please do not   include your words from the teaching plan) ASSESSMENT PLAN (Please remember to maintain the anonymity of the area of work and the persons involved). |Date on which the assessment occurred: | |Learning environment: | | | | | | |Number/s and learning style(s) of learner(s) being assessed: ( if known) | | | | | | | | | |Learner’s previous k nowledge, skills and attitude : | | | |Title of assessment /Aim: | | | | | |Learning outcomes: | | | | | |Preparation of the learner/s for the assessment :(please include the context of assessment e. g. ormative/summative): | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Consider any Issues to be considered by the Assessor with the learner/s: (such as maintaining dignity, confidentiality, maintenance of safety. please | |include the standard/level to be achieved, and relate to knowledge/skills/attitudes/safety). | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Assessment Criteria to be used for this assessment? Trust policy/Standard etc. |Do not evaluate in this plan, evaluate the assessment within your 1000 word reflection include: | |What would you alter if you were to undertake this again? Would you alter anything with reference to your learning environment, timing, aim, learning | |outcomes, resources used etc? | |What methods would you use to collate information regarding the assessment for e. g. utilise observation? Patient narrative or questioning techniques? Would| |you prepare the learner more satisfactorily for the assessment? Would you alter the aim/ learning outcomes? Did you assess knowledge, skills and attitude? | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Essay 2 1. Explore in detail why it is necessary to assess your learner The NMC sets out standards of education of pre-registration students. These set out what nursing students must demonstrate to be fit for practice at the point of registration with the NMC. All nurses are required to share their knowledge, skills and expertise and must assist students in the development of competence (Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) 2008a).Recent changes highlighted in the Standards to Support Learning and Assessment in Practice (NMC 2008b) have raised the profile of mentoring in practice. These standards provide a clear framework to enhance the quality, principles and accountability of mentorship. Practical knowledge and per sonal experience are cornerstones for integrating theoretical knowledge and developing nursing skills and are a major reason for clinical placements during nurse education (Midgley,2006) A context of learning is created when learning is acknowledged as a legitimate aspect of the nursing situation e. g. when an experienced nurse accompanies the student either to observe or teach in the situation. The role of the mentor in clinical practice settings is an important aspect of nurse education.Through mentorship, qualified nurses get the opportunity to pass on professional values, knowledge and skills to the trainee nurse. 2. What were your aim and learning outcomes? Where did the assessment criteria come from? Was the assessment valid and reliable? The aim of the assessment session was that the student would demonstrate the ability to perform a manual blood pressure recording. That she would have an understanding of the relevance of the readings and that the recordings would be document ed accurately. The assessment criteria were compiled from policies and guidelines set out by the NMC, Royal Marsden Manual of Clinical Procedures and employers policies. Thus ensuring that the procedure adheres to NMC and local guidelines.The assessment was both valid and reliable as the learning outcomes were specific to policy and procedure. 3. Discuss the importance of constructive feedback and how it was given to your learner Feedback is an important part of the process in improving skills, knowledge and confidence. Students in all professions require feedback in order to stay motivated in their learning. The importance of thoughtfully and appropriately delivering feedback becomes clear when the deleterious consequences of poorly given or misunderstood feedback are considered. For example when learners view feedback purely negatively, they can become anxious or resentful and less receptive to further learning and evaluation (King, 1999).The feedback given to my student following the assessment was undertaken in a quiet private area, where time was taken to discuss together how we both felt the assessment had gone. I gave positive feedback on the assessment, pausing to allow the student to comment, the student herself highlighted the area of the assessment she felt under confident about. We had a further discussion on this and together compiled an action plan and scheduled regular one to one session to facilitate practice sessions. The session ended on a very positive note with the student thanking me for my guidance. 4. Reflect on your strengths and weaknesses of the assessment sessionOn reflecting my own strengths and weaknesses during the assessment session it has become apparent to me that I should have given the student the opportunity to postpone the assessment due to the unexpected noisy environment . I felt the student’s concentration was compromised. This indeed could be identified as a weakness, not enabling the student to have an ideal lea rning environment. My strength during the assessment would have been my delivery of feedback following the session. I was able to use my positive mentor student relationship in order to allow the student to self-reflect and become aware of the area of the assessment in which she was weak. By allowing the student to 5. (Word count for essay 2 =†¦.. words ( NB: Please do not   include your words from the assessment plan) References

A history of refugees

A history of refugees According to the United Nations, a refugee is a person who flees their home country due to a â€Å"well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion.† From ancient to recent times, from poor areas to developed countries, refugees could be seen almost everywhere. Nowadays, although the global economy has been developing very fast, the problem of refugee still exits. With the old issues remain unsolved, the new ones also emerging, the situation of refugees did not improve a lot much. The number of refugees has kept raising and their geographical distribution has kept widening, how to find the solution to refugee problems has become a cross-century challenge for the whole world. Poverty is one of the fatal roots of the refugee problem. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), in their report on the global food and agricultural situation, points out that there are still 13% of the hum an species on earth (about 800 million) are still starving. And the phenomenon is most serious in the African continent — there were about 400 million people lack of food or clothes; Asia following Africa sees the less worst situation — there are about 300 million people are still suffering from hunger all day long; And the population in Latin America who live under the poverty line reach the number of 70 million. We notice that, the number of refugees in each continent refers to a considerable proportion of the number of people suffer from starvation. The latest United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) statistics shows that there are more than 2100 million refugees in total worldwide, of which 8.44 million in Asia, 5.33 million in Africa, 1.04 million in North America, 570 thousand in Latin America and the Caribbean, and Europe is home for 564 thousand refugees among whom mostly come from Africa, Asia and Latin America. In recent years, our whole world se es the continuous development of science and technology along with the global economy. However, food shortage is still a very fatal and serious problem. In a report released by Food and Agricultural Organization in March, it demonstrated that due to continuous natural disasters, there are now 60 million people living in 33 different countries are facing various degrees of food insecurity problems. The report, entitled â€Å"Shortage of Food and Crops†, said that some African area in the south of sub-Saharan region is facing the most serious food deficit — 16 countries in that area are in extreme food shortage. In East Africa, although the situation of the year-long drought has been improved last year, yet 18 million people live in Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Sudan and Tanzania still need the international community to continue to provide emergency food aid. In Mozambique and other southern African countries, the recent outbreak of floods caused severe damage to crops, an d these countries also need access to food aid too. Many countries in Asia are also troubled by the shortage of food. Serious food crisis has begun in Afghanistan due to continuing civil war and drought. East and Central Asia countries such as Armenia, Georgia and Tajikistan are also in the need of food aid due to the droughts happened in their domestics. Food shortages directly threaten the lives of local residents, in order to survive, the population in poor area was forced to leave their homes and become refugees of no fixed abodes.

Language Development Methods for Secondary and Middle Schools Essay

Language Development Methods for Secondary and Middle Schools - Essay Example It presents a comparative study of about the effectiveness of the programs and services offered, key strategies implemented, significant organizational features, as well offers an insight into the challenges faced during the process. As a teacher / educator / student teacher, at the ____________ school, California; I had the opportunity to visit and observe the various programs and services offered by the school to an Elementary class and students of eight grade SDAIE class, which requires and implements both, special education as well as education in English as a second language. With most of the children identified as developmentally handicapped, and coming from non English speaking backgrounds, I was delighted to know that a majority of them responded well to the customary greetings â€Å"Good Morning, Teacher†. I observed that students of the Eight grade, displayed an impressive understanding of the language and had excellent expressive and receptive skills in the English language. Their oral and written abilities were more or less similar to those of their English speaking counterparts with the same form of disabilities. I remember a particular incident – of my interaction with one of the Span ish students called ------------------, who was a first generation American, who spoke fluent Spanish at home, lived in a predominantly Spanish speaking community of California, but interacted in manageable / fluent (choose as appropriate) English with his English babysitter / housemaid (choose as appropriate). ----xyz--------, age ----, another such student spoke fluent Spanish as his/her mother tongue, and learnt English at age 6, displayed adequate reading and writing skills in the secondary language. From these observations, I can safely conclude that the degree of proficiency and expertise in the second language i.e., English, was found to be similar to that of their primary language i.e., Spanish, especially when the secondary language was needed for day to

The Dynamic Geography of Global Work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

The Dynamic Geography of Global Work - Essay Example Cost of production encompasses other factors such as cost of labor, raw materials, and overhead costs. The second broad category of factors is the market. Initially, Apple manufactured most of its products in America. Today, the company manufactures most of its products overseas. Steve Jobs clarified to President Obama that jobs were not going back to US. The case clearly reveals the changing geography of business. It justifies that claim that America has changed from provision of goods to provision of services (Thier, 2012). Whereas about 10% of Americans work in manufacturing in industries, the rest work in service industries such as Walmart. Successful global operations of Apple have made be among the best companies in the world that people admire. Apple maintained that the shift to overseas the only option. Business organizations would opt to set their manufacturing firms in areas that minimize costs of production. China and India are the latest targets for American industries. Costs and accessibility of raw materials play critical roles in determining the final cost of a product (Garside, 2013). As a result, Apple could be operating in China because of availability of raw materials at a considerably low cost. In addition, cost of labor also matters. China could be having ready man power for the Apple industry. Steve Jobs explained that cheap labor could not be the only reason for the shift of Apple to China. He cited economies of scale in manufacturing facilities and human resources as the some of the reasons for the decision. It takes many months to mobilize contractual engineers and takes a short time to do that in China (Thier, 2012). Apples Executives also highlighted that it takes a lot of tine to construct manufacturing units in America. An individual only needs 15 days to construct a new production line to accommodate a new design. Despite the fact that iphones are made

Accounting coursework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Accounting coursework - Essay Example In addition, it will explain how the companies have managed their working capital for the accounting periods. This will further analyse and explain the financing activities of the two companies. Task 4 will comment on the overall strategy being observed by the two companies based on their cash inflows and outflows based on analysis made on earlier tasks. A determination of which was able to manage its cash better will be made with reasons. The net profit generated from operations by the business may not be equal to the cash generated by operations by the same period because net profit includes non-cash items recognized as income and expenses but they do not necessarily involve cash. The reason for this is that revenues and expenses in the income statement are generally prepared under the accrual method of accounting (Kieso et, al, 2007) while Net Cash from operations, has taken this fact in consideration and this is the reason that certain items are added and subtracted to the net profit to arrive at the operating cash flow from operations. Thus there is need to add back to the net income, prepared under the accrual method, the non-cash deductions like amortizations and depreciations expenses. There is also need to deduct non-cash revenues like gains on sale of properties and investments and other adjustments. To illustrate, an example of the adjustments to the net income is shown in appendix A. Note that the net profit of $200,000 is lower than the net cash from operations of P246,700. An adjustment amounting $46,700 basically included added back depreciation, subtracted gains from sales and/or revaluation and change in working capital.

National Policy Issue - Immigration Reform Research Paper

National Policy Issue - Immigration Reform - Research Paper Example †¢ The economic recession in the early 1990s led to the public developing a sentiment was against immigration-friendly policies.†¢ The economic recession in the early 90s led to the public developing a sentiment was against immigration-friendly policies.†¢ The Illegal Immigration Reform and Responsibility Act came into effect.IV. Many law makers realized that much had to be done in order to have a comprehensive immigration system.†¢ Their efforts culminated in a comprehensive Reform Act passed 2 years later.  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ Barack Obama pledged to pursue immigration reform but was unsuccessful in his first term.  V. In 2013, prospects for reform appear to be much higher with a draft legislation that has a number of contentious.  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ The bill calls for higher border security in the form of greater border patrol agents.  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ To meet the needs of the agricultural community, a seasonal workers program must be passed.†¢ The path to citizenship involves th e payment of back taxes, legalization fees among others.VI. Recently, a migration crisis has been looming at the border as a number of undocumented children have been arriving in the country.  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ The president has called it a humanitarian crisis that requires immediate action from Congress.  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ These children have arrived in tens of thousands and sparked outrage among natives in border towns.†¢ Many are from states like Honduras and other Central American nations and are giving more impetus for legislation in the Senate

Research proposal in the public service (public services for example Essay

Research proposal in the public service (public services for example police, fire service etc...) - Essay Example are some of the important types of public services which a government arranges for the general public. With growing population, widening areas of services, growing public expectations, constant monitoring by the public and the media besides the government appointed regulatory mechanism the public services offices have come under severe pressure to perform well. The police services for example are now under pressure to sniff the terror plots being hatched by terrorists. In addition the crimes like online identity theft, internet banking frauds etc. are further addition to the list of crimes that the local police department is supposed to investigate. The manpower and resources on the other hand has not been match up with the exponential numbers and types of crimes. It is under such circumstances that at some places, question marks are being raised about the effectiveness of the public services. Discussions are also being held to figure out the possible remedial measures that could be taken up by the government/s to make such services more effective and efficient. The main intention of the study is to develop a better understanding of the concepts of public services in general and their effectiveness in these challenging times. During the study an effort would be made to study some of the recent incidents where the role of public services has been quite constructive. In addition, some such incidents will also be analysed where the role of public services has been criticised in the media or amongst the intelligentsia. The study will try to seek answers to the following key objectives. i. To analyze the availability of some pre-identified public services with respect to the numbers of people. This will involve comparison of per capita availability of such services in different regions. ii. What types of expectations do the general populace have from the government of the day iii. Find out the impact of public private cooperation in some fields. As a part of the corporate social responsibility, a number of corporate houses have also come forward in lending a helping hand to the people and the government. An effort would be made to assess how successful such associations proved in the recent past. iv. As responsible citizens we too have a responsibility towards the state and nation, which implies that we must allow the public service offices to function in an effective manner without hampering their cause or without burdening them with our irresponsible behaviour. An effort would therefore be to assess how conscious the citizens are towards their duty as responsible citizens in making the public services more effective. v. Analyse some of the public services like Fire services, police services, health services etc. This will be an effort to point out some areas which require attention in order to make such services more effective. Approach Research approaches and methods radically influence research content and, consequently, the policies designed in response to that content. If carried out in an objective manner, research not only helps the researcher in knowing about many unknown aspects, but it often provides a benchmark for future researches as well. This thesis is more of a qualitative case study which focuses on an

Marketing management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 2

Marketing management - Essay Example They have specialty outlets to cater to niche segments of high spenders as well as sports lovers. One such company is Black’s Leisure Group plc (Blacks) whose principal activity is outdoor and boardwear retailing. The Group operates through two retail chains of stores called Outdoor and ONeill. The core activities of Outdoor comprise of outdoor and boardwear clothing, footwear and equipment, while ONeill functions as a distributor and retailer of ONeill products in UK. In 12 months ending March 2007On sales of  £ 298.276m it suffered a loss of  £ 12.353m. This has improved somewhat for the next 6 month period in current year by September end with sales at  £146.8m with profits at  £0.2m. This cannot be considered final as the annual set offs like depreciation and reserves can only be calculated at the end of the year. Blacks have also closed down 7 loss making stores out of 45 planned for closure. It also continues to face tough competition from top 4 competitors. The overall market of sportswear is certainly increasing but the prices are under pressure due to customer resistance and high degree of competition. The fact is both external environments affect the competitive advantage of companies and therefore the PEST analysis helps the management to deal with situations and formulate strategic policies to overcome, circumvent or even take advantage of these factors. PEST stands for Political, Economical, Socio-Cultural and Technological factors. As they are all external, the company can at best try to strategize to tune itself in accordance with them for survival, sustenance and indeed for growth. Economical factors cover Development of relevant economic indicators, Business cycles, Unemployment and Industry structures. The economic indicators show growth in the UK economy with controlled inflation at around 3%. The economy has experienced an unusually long period

Article critique in Higher Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Article critique in Higher Education - Essay Example he NSF/PTK project, the credibility of the authors to write about the NSF/PTK project is not as strong as compared to having all the three authors a member of the NSF/PTK project. The qualification of the authors would have been stronger if all the authors are members of the NSF/PTK project. The author of this article mentioned that the article was written to determine the impact of the NSF and PTK project in the quality of the community’s education. It is good that the authors explicitly stated in Table I – Phi Theta Kappa Award-Winning Colleges the name of the seven selected schools, the number of campuses in each school, the number of enrollees and education program students together with its partnered 4-year institution that participated in the study. This information provides the reader a rough idea on where the study in this article was conducted. Funded by the NSF and PTK, the authors explicitly stated that the purpose of the study is to determine the impact or effect of the implemented national project on the 7 selected community colleges including the 4-year partner institutions in strengthening the Science, Mathematics, and technology components of the educational programs in each community college. The authors did not mention any research question or hypothesis in this study. This area is one of the weak points of this study. The article would have been written better by including some research question and/or hypotheses since it would allow the readers to have a critical thinking regarding the main topic of this article. There is no solid literature review in this article. Since two of the authors are professors and the other one is a teacher education instructor, most of the information in this article came from their own idea, perception, and experience in their teaching profession. mentioned that the NSF and PTK project has two rounds of funding wherein the first round is composed of seven mentor teams that worked with 18 selected community

Functional Areas of Business Essay Example for Free

Functional Areas of Business Essay Functional Areas of Business In an organization, there are many functional areas of a business. These functional areas include management, law, human resource management, leadership, accounting, finance, economics, research and statistics, operations management, marketing, and strategic planning. A manager’s role is never the same in these functional areas. Within the paper, the writer will analyze the role of a manager with the functional areas of business. Management and Law Managers have to ensure the business success; this is how management comes into play. Management has to use his or her human capital effectively, and efficiently to accomplish daily task within an organization. Human capital is also the organizational most important resource because employees can make a business successful. Managers need to ensure that a job is design properly, and when setting goals for employees are they reachable. Rewards are another part of how managers can get employees to complete his or her job in an efficient manner. In order for a business to function in today’s society, a manager has to ensure that the business is in compliance with the state, and federal laws. If a business operates in an international market, then the business also has international laws and regulations to follow. According to University of Phoenix MBA Overview Module (2014), â€Å"business law also helps managers safeguard the firm’s intellectual property and resolve situations when they arise† (para, Law). Human Resource Management and Leadership Human resource management in numerous organizations is the foundation of that business. One such role is ensuring that the right candidate acquires the job. Managers also use this to develop employee’s skills by training him or her properly, and ensure that employees wages are correct. Managers also evaluate employees on his or her performance, and give disciplinary actions to correct the situation. Within this functional area, a manager also offers the employee benefits that the business has to offer (University of Phoenix MBA Overview Module, 2014). Not everyone can pose leadership qualities; however leadership qualities can be trained. In this functional area, a manager may inspire, and motivate his or her employees; this helps employees achieve the company’s goals. Not all leaders are managers; however, leaders can assist managers with handling conflict, and power struggles with the company when they occur (University of Phoenix MBA Overview Module, 2014). Accounting and Finance One may believe that accounting and finance are the same; there are differences between the two. According to the online dictionary (2014), accounting is â€Å"the theory and system of setting up, maintaining, and auditing the books of a firm† (Accounting). Accounting has two parts, financial accounting, and managerial accounting. Managerial accounting involves managers viewing income statements and balance sheets. The information from the accounting and finance statement assists managers with making a sound decision on behalf of the company. These decisions may include how the company will spend for the future, if the company can afford to employ new employee, and how to budget for upcoming ventures (University of Phoenix MBA Overview Module, 2014). One of the most essential parts of an organization is the constant acquisition of fixed earnings. In order for any business to grow and thrive, it is necessary that the business acquire assets. Managers within the company will have different choices on how to make these decisions. When dealing with a company’s international market and finance a manager also influences new ventures that the company may be taking (University of Phoenix MBA Overview Module, 2014). Economics, Research and Statistics Economics is the study of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services within countries and individual firms† (University of Phoenix MBA Overview Module, 2014). Mangers use economics to increase the company’s profit and to understand the market conditions; these conditions include recession, and depression. Managers use this information to determine what factors need to be viewed and understand before entering into a new market especially the international market. The research portion is information is collected from a person, and statistics is use to understand that data. Managers use this information to gain insight to the business. A manager can understand the consumption of a product, how often it is consume, and the usage time frame associated with the products. All the above information assists managers with knowing when to continue using these products, and when to modify productivity in the future (University of Phoenix MBA Overview Module, 2014). Operations Management and Marketing Operations management ties into research and statistics. Operations management is how managers use the information they have received and interpret the data to determine the products that consumers use most, the seasons in which these products have the highest sale. As previously stated, this information helps managers determine when to produce the product, or if the product should be pulled off the market (University of Phoenix MBA Overview Module, 2014). According to the business dictionary (2014) marketing is, â€Å" the management process through which goods and services move concept to the consumer† (Marketing). Marketing uses different strategies that offer consumer products. One method of finding out what the consumer desire is the â€Å"push versus pull† promotional strategy (Eveleth, D. M. , Liesz, T. J. , 2011). Managers identify what products the consumers need and want, and try to create a decent image and campaign to launch that brand to the public. Strategic Planning Strategic planning involves creating and implementing creative ideas that will apply to the company’s goal. Strategic planning is the last step that draws all the functional areas of business together. According to University of Phoenix MBA Overview Module (2014), â€Å"managers use strategic planning and implementation to bring all aspects of the firm together† (para, Strategic Planning). These include economics, marketing, and finance to guarantee the business success. Conclusion In an organization, there are many functional areas of a business. These functional areas include management, law, human resource management, leadership, accounting, finance, economics, research and statistics, operations management, marketing, and strategic planning. A manager’s role is never the same in these functional areas. Within this paper, the writer has analyzed the role of a manager with the functional areas of business.

Patriotism Essay Example for Free

Patriotism Essay Bader main thesis is that patriotism is neither good nor evil, depending on how its ‘name’ is called upon. Bader asserts that patriotism has numerous forms, and yet the author expresses that all these forms share common psychological underpinnings – that of meeting the needs of safety and connectedness. The author begins by saying that he metaphors of patriotism have been likened to family, that accords individuals with security and attachment. He further expounds on the idea of patriotism is a psychological means to address connectedness and safety needs. On one end, patriotism provides protection and strength which are virtues associated with paternity; on the other, patriotism is also symbolic of caring which are traits linked with motherhood. A second idea would be acknowledging that while patriotism is influenced by a host of factors apart from the unconscious, its potency stems from its being psychological – embedded in the recesses of our unconscious. In this sense, it is a way of addressing the psychological needs of attachment and recognition, and the failure to sufficiently meet such needs lead to psychosis or mental dysfunction. In discussing these psychological needs, he has used the example of an infant who has virtually full dependence on its caregivers – the latter being the embodiment of power and authority. The manner of protection received by children determines their sense of insecurity and developing trust in others. The quest for security is also constant, even as we feel a perennial lack of safety and protection. In his third idea, he says that given these metaphors of family, it is now easier to comprehend the psychological dynamics behind patriotism. One’s affiliation with the United States brings a strong sense of safety and connectedness to its citizens. It is also able to â€Å"bind† and bring together people who share the same sense of safety and connectedness because of a common affiliation of citizenship. A fourth point is that the manner in which patriotism satisfies these psychological needs take on more potency since these are very difficult to find in our daily social lives. Society is depicted as highly individualistic. This social experience further reinforce the insecurity and lack of safety that parents have developed in people as children. These pent up thoughts and feelings are then stored in the unconscious as frustrations. A fifth point of the author is that patriotism seems to address these unconscious frustrations in being an ideal representation of national pride, historical purpose, and collectivism – which are all constructs related to safety and connectedness. Political parties leverage on these frustrations, trying their best to project the image of protector in appealing to people. They take advantage of the ‘parent’ paradigm, presenting themselves as caring, nurturing, and protective. This exploitation of psychic needs are used to advocate both liberal and conservative ends. In his sixth point, he proposes that the Left seem to be more effective at furthering its agenda. A perfect example would be the way in which police and surveillance powers were justified in the name of protecting the nation. Moreover, the author expresses tht conservatives have been more skilled at using prejudice and the concept of an ‘enemy’ in furthering its ends. Educational institutions’ influence may exert impact in addressing these psychological needs, teaching empathy, recognition, and other values that may intend to gratify these needs. Finally, he says that the psychological dynamics that underlie patriotism are global in nature, driven by the needs of safety and connectedness. These needs may be addressed in both healthy and unhealthy means and may be done so towards immoral ends. In itself, it is neither good nor evil, and these value judgments are made depending on the use or purpose for which the name of patriotism is used. Bader’s main strength in this article is the fact that he gave the much needed logic and connection to the ideas he presented – man’s needs, the collective feeling of people, and the rationale behind the use of patriotism as a tool for political motivation. He has also found basis for the conclusion that patriotism is neither good or bad. This moral judgment on the goodness or evilness of patriotism lies in the purpose for which it is used; for example, political parties use them to take control of people’s political choice. However, a weakness that can be seen is that the author also stressed to many points against conservatives. He may be pointing out his opinions but have put the conservatives into a bad light. In trying to be more objective in his assessment of the issue, he may have looked into the liberal side as well, presenting cases similar to what he did for conservatives. This way, he will not be perceived as biased. Another weakness that may be seen is that the resolution just took on a very short note. It just went on a short notice that it hardly qualified as a resolution. Although the author has a point on the matter, he failed to expound on it and define the steps to be taken, why they should be taken and to whom should the action be devoted to. There was also very little pragmatic value based from the recommendations of the author. The only direct action step he has proposed is for schools to leverage on their influence the satisfaction of these psychological needs. The article is very detailed that it is hard at first not to agree with the writer. I agreed with the point that man indeed has the necessity of wanting to feel secured and safe at all times, even wanting to find their necessities amidst the insecurities that they have experienced. I also do agree that the value of patriotism is used in politically motivated ways to achieve the means needed by the parties to gain trust among the people and be recognized as a truth bearing entity. I also agree that although patriotism should be upheld during the times of the 9/11 and the Hurricane Katrina, it should not be a venue for people moving with political agendas and using the â€Å"sacred† value as a means of it. And lastly, I do believe that the educational institutions should have a hand in directing the people, especially the youth towards the ways of non-discriminating, unbiased people. They should also teach people about how they would filter information being fed to them on the grounds of racism, bias and discrimination. The educational system is one of the institutions that a person attends to. It is hard to imagine that one would try to go to school and learn, only to come out and be tainted and blinded by other people’s political agendas – when in fact, they should be helping us in the assimilation stage of our studies, not changing what we learned to what political people would want us to think. That would be driving us away from what patriotism is really about. The kind of patriotism that each citizen has practiced and witnessed during in times of grief and misery, like the times of 9/11 and Hurricane Katrina. Patriotism, at its very core, is about satisfying the psychological needs of people. It becomes a very strong and influential factor specially since its roots are deeply embedded in our psyche – our collective psyche at that. However, care must be taken about how the concept may be taken advantaged of by those who have personal agendas – such as politicians – for meeting their own selfish ends. This prudence and tact may be influenced strongly by schools. They can concretely draft activities that are meant to develop a strong sense of safety and connectedness. In sufficiently addressing these psychological needs, the probability of being exploited – through an appeal to emotion and psyche – is effectively reduced. People can be more critical and discriminating about what to believe. They then do not fall victim into these opportunistic ways of evoking patriotism’s name.

Replica System in Distributed File Sharing Environments

Replica System in Distributed File Sharing Environments AN EFFECTIVE FRAMEWORK FOR MANAGING REPLICA SYSTEM IN DISTRIBUTED FILE SHARING ENVIRONMENTS Tesmy K Jose,  Ã‚  Dr.V.Ulagamuthalvi Abstract-An Enhanced file system called Probabilistic File Share System is used to resolve all the distributed file update issues. There are three mechanisms designed in the probabilistic file share system such as Lazy Adaptive Synchronization Approach, Standard Replica System Replay Approach and Probabilistic method. The adaptive replica synchronization and Standard Replica System Replay approaches are implemented among the Storage Servers (SSs) and it makes the Meta Data Server (MDS) free from replica synchronization. Furthermore, a probabilistic control system is deployed into the proposed work in order to managing replicas replacement, overloading and their failures where the system can be measure the possibilities of every replicas replacement, overloading and failures level according their communication overhead and physical information. If the communication overhead or physical failure probability is high then the replica system replaced from replicas environment as well as se nds the notification message to its neighbor replicas with the failure system details. Keywords- Metadata Server, Lazy Adaptive Synchronization, Standard Replica System Replay, Probabilistic Control System. 1. Introduction As the volume of digital data grows, reliable, low-cost storage systems that do not compromise on access performance are increasingly important. A number of storage systems (e.g., libraries, tape and optical jukeboxes) provide high reliability coupled with low I/O throughput. However, as throughput requirements grow, using high-end components leads to increasingly costly systems. In general, the client contacts the metadata server (MDS), which handles all the properties of the whole file system, to get the authorization to work on the file and the information of the file’s layout. Then, the client accesses the corresponding storage servers (SSs), which handle the file data management on storage machines, to execute the actual file I/O operations after parsing the layout information obtained from the MDS. A number of existing distributed storage systems (e.g., cluster-based and peer-to-peer storage systems) attempt to offer cost-effective, reliable data stores on top of unrelia ble, commodity or even donated storage components. To tolerate failures of individual nodes, these systems use data redundancy through replication or erasure coding. This approach faces two problems. First, regardless of the redundancy level used, there is always a non-zero probability of a burst of correlated permanent failures up to the redundancy level used; hence the possibility of permanently losing data always exists. Second, data loss probability increases with the data volume stored when all other characteristics of the system are kept constant One of disadvantage of clusters is that programs must be grouped to run on multiple equipments, and it is difficult for these grouped programs to cooperate or distribute resources. Perhaps the most significant such resource is the file system. In the absence of a cluster file system, individual components of a grouped program must share cluster storage in an unplanned manner. This typically complicates programming, restricts performance, and compromises reliability. Also, the Meta Data Server is responsible for handling all the information about chunk replicas and generating replica synchronization when one of the storage servers has been updated. However, saving the recently written data to the disk becomes a blockage to the whole file system because all other threads need to remain until the synchronous flush-and sync procedure started by one of the SSs is completed. A Probabilistic File Share System is proposed to resolve the abovementioned issues. It is used to support lazy and adaptive replica synchronization with replica replacement management among the SSs and make the MDS free from replica synchronization and failure maintenance. 2. Literature Survey Different types of distributed file system supports chunk replication for reliability and produce high data bandwidth as same as similar replica synchronization mechanisms. A class of file system extends the traditional file server architecture to a storage area network (SAN) environment which allows the file server to access data directly from the disk through (SAN). Examples of SAN file system are IBM/Tivoli SANergy and Veritas SAN Point Direct [8,9]. GPFS allows chunk replication by partitioning space for multiple copies of each data chunk on the different Storage Servers and updates to all locations synchronously. Before the completion of write operation, GPFS used to follow the updates of chunk replicas which files had updated on the primary SSs and then updates other replicas[7].Ceph also had similar replica synchronization policy, i.e., the newly written data should be applied to all replicas stored on the different Storage Servers[5]. In the Hadoop file system, the replicated chunks are stored on the Storage Servers. Storage Server’s list will contains copies of any stripe produced and managed by Metadata Server. So, the Metadata Server handles the replicas synchronization and if new data written on any of the replicas,it will be triggered [4]. In GFS, the Metadata Server computes the location and data layout among the various chunk servers. Every chunk is replicated on multiple chunk servers and the replica synchronization is done by Metadata server (MDS) [6]. In Lustre file system, which is the parallel file system has a same chunk called replication mechanism [10]. The researchers are successively presented MinCopysets and Copysets replication techniques to enhance data durability (i.e., data loss) during retain the benefits of randomized load balancing by using derandomized replicas placement policy. However, researchers didn’t enclose the algorithm of replica synchronization and replica replacement [3,2]. 3. Proposed System 3.1 Probabilistic File Shared System Architecture The probabilistic file share system copy and give out the locations of all replicas belonging to the same file chunk to the Storage Servers (SSs) where the replicas are stored. Fig. 1 shows the architecture of probabilistic file share system. The probabilistic control system is organized to calculate the failure rate of every replica in the probabilistic file share system environment. To calculate the failure rate of replicas, our system examine each replicas for communication overhead and also obtains the CPU and memory utilization. By this our proposed system maintains better data consistency in the distributed file shared environment. Fig. 1 Probabilistic File Share System Architecture 3.2 Data Updating Fig. 2: Adaptive Synchronization Approach In the case of processing a write request, the probabilistic file share system use the mechanism of lazy replica synchronization. This probabilistic system firstly completes the write operation and each update process in probabilistic file share system storage is replicated using adaptive replica synchronization. Here adaptive replica synchronization approach is used to copy the each modification in a storage management of distributed file system where primary replica updates the result into replica n and passes the acknowledgement into primary replica. 3.3 System Crash Handling The probabilistic file share system adopts a deferred replica synchronization mechanism for reconstructing the lost file updates. i.e., it allows only the primary Storage Server to manage the latest data snapshot for reducing write latency and the synchronous process of replica to other SSs will be conducted along the timeline. The Meta Data Server buffers ascertain the latest write requests in the memory; when the number of cached requests is larger than a predefined threshold, the MDS is supposed to direct SSs to perform regular replica synchronization, so that the cached requests can be removed from the memory. 3.4 SS’s Failure and Replacement The proposed file sharing system arranged in a probabilistic control system that examine the system details and every replica communication. The probabilistic control system keeps a replacement list to store the system details such as CPU utilization, Memory Utilization and etc. By using the abovementioned information, the probabilistic control system measures the failure rate for each replica. If the communication overhead or physical failure probability is high then the replica system replaced from replicas environment as well as sends the notification message to its neighbor replicas with the failure system details. Figure 3: Illustrated of Probabilistic Control System The Figure 3 shows the illustrated replica replacement management process. The following function is used to measure the failure rate of replica: 5. Conclusion This research work proposed a new probabilistic file share system. The modified lazy adaptive synchronization approach successfully updates the data in the Storage Servers. This approach will take less I/O execution time, computation and storage compared to other approaches. The standard replica system replay approach can well handle the crashes of Storage Servers and can improve the lost data. At last, a probabilistic control system is positioned in the new probabilistic file share system. The replica failure calculation and their replacement management are extremely directed by the probabilistic control system.

Countee Cullen :: essays research papers

Countee Cullen Countee Cullen (Porter) was considered by many to be the most talented of the Harlem Renaissance poets. Cullen was a novelist and a playwright, but he was known by most as a poet. He was born on March 30, 1903 in New York. Cullen was adopted at some point between the time of his birth and 1918. By 1921, he changed his last name to Cullen, from his adopted mothers last name. He attended DeWitt Clinton High School between (1918- 1921). During this time he was editor of his schools newspaper and of the magazine Magpie, and during High School he wrote his first poetry that received notice. He also attended New York University for four years. Not much is known of the early years of his childhood up until 1918. Between the time of Cullen’s birth 1918 he was adopted by Rev. Frederick A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  and Carolyn Bell (Mitchell) Cullen of the Salem Methodist Episcopal Church in Harlem. It is unknown how old Cullen was when he got adopted. Rev. Cullen regained Countee Cullen’s faith back in himself by getting him to understand that any goal or dream that he had to fulfill it. Countee received much help both mentally and physically from his adopted father, it is said that if Countee would not have been adopted by the Reverend he would not have gone as far as he eventually did. Countee Cullen was considered one of the most talented of the Harlem Renaissance poets. A lot of his poetry was written during his high school and college years. During high school Cullen won his first contest, a citywide competition, with the poem â€Å"I Have a Rendezvous with Life,† a non-racial poem. Cullen was also the editor of his high school paper and a literary magazine Magpie. He furthered his wisdom and education at Countee Cullen :: essays research papers Countee Cullen Countee Cullen (Porter) was considered by many to be the most talented of the Harlem Renaissance poets. Cullen was a novelist and a playwright, but he was known by most as a poet. He was born on March 30, 1903 in New York. Cullen was adopted at some point between the time of his birth and 1918. By 1921, he changed his last name to Cullen, from his adopted mothers last name. He attended DeWitt Clinton High School between (1918- 1921). During this time he was editor of his schools newspaper and of the magazine Magpie, and during High School he wrote his first poetry that received notice. He also attended New York University for four years. Not much is known of the early years of his childhood up until 1918. Between the time of Cullen’s birth 1918 he was adopted by Rev. Frederick A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  and Carolyn Bell (Mitchell) Cullen of the Salem Methodist Episcopal Church in Harlem. It is unknown how old Cullen was when he got adopted. Rev. Cullen regained Countee Cullen’s faith back in himself by getting him to understand that any goal or dream that he had to fulfill it. Countee received much help both mentally and physically from his adopted father, it is said that if Countee would not have been adopted by the Reverend he would not have gone as far as he eventually did. Countee Cullen was considered one of the most talented of the Harlem Renaissance poets. A lot of his poetry was written during his high school and college years. During high school Cullen won his first contest, a citywide competition, with the poem â€Å"I Have a Rendezvous with Life,† a non-racial poem. Cullen was also the editor of his high school paper and a literary magazine Magpie. He furthered his wisdom and education at

Galileo Essay -- essays research papers

Galileo "Whereas Galileo spent his last days under house arrest and was formally condemned by the Church for his scientific views, the elder Darwin was widely respected by the Anglican Church and was buried at the Westminster Abbey, an honor reserved for only the most illustrious personages of Great Britain. The reason for the two scientists' very different fortunes is simple: Galileo couldn't prove the Copernican hypothesis but Darwin was able to demonstrate the truth of his theory of evolution." In the world of Galileo proof was what was needed to succeed with a scientific hypothesis. In the world of Darwin proof was not needed for a scientific hypothesis to succeed. There were many differences in the worlds of these two great scientists that lead to the reaction to their respective scientific hypothesize. It was not their beliefs alone that led to their peer's views it was also the way each of them conducted themselves. Galileo worked his way to become a respected scientist by most of the intellectual community but he was also despised by many because of his background and because of his attitude towards others. Darwin was well respected by the intellectual community, but the difference was the way they conducted themselves when they were dealing with their hypothesizes. Galileo's Hypothesis Galileo was well known for standing up for what he believed in and pushing the things he wanted. He was constantly writing letters and engaging in debates over the issue of Copernicanism. Galileo's entire reason for doing this was to make the scientific and religious communities accept that Copernicanism was actually a fact and that there was enough proof to believe it. One example of the way Galileo strongly pushed his beliefs on others was the way he preached Copernicanism to the people of Rome in 1615. While he was in Rome trying to improve the church's opinion of him, Galileo was also debating the Aristotelians over this issue and beating them at their own game. Because of his natural talent for debate and because of his intelligence was able to outwit the Aristotelians in these debates. Galileo acted this way because he believed that he was in a position to make these kinds of statements without getting on the wrong side of the church. These actions show that Galileo was very insistent upon his ideas and upon what othe... ...did not have to be subject to the approval of the Catholic Church. Darwin and Galileo were very different men who are both remembered as great scientists of their times. While Galileo was condemned for his efforts Darwin was remembered as a hero. This was because of their different methods of presenting their ideas. Galileo was a fighter who would not back down from a fight until he was pitted against the Vatican and faced with excommunication. He tactics caused many people to despise him in his time, which lead to the ban of his book on Copernicanism. While Darwin preferred to work in his home and have others fight his battles for him. It was because of Darwin's passive promotion of his book that he made very few enemies when compared to Galileo. If Galileo was more like Darwin he may have been better off at the time of his death. While much of the Copernican theory is know as fact now there is still a debate over Darwinism. This is because it has yet to be proven definitively. Darwin was still honored for his contribution of this theory because he did it in a scientific manner and did not impose his opinion onto others.

Patron-Artist Relations in the Renaissance :: essays research papers fc

Patron-Artist Relations in the Renaissance   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The subject of artist-patron relations has been a touchy one since the beginning of the phenomenon. Nowadays it does not take such great precedence, as the artist leans more toward a personal, individual type of art typical of freelance. Serious commissions exist only in public art and architecture, where the needs and feelings of a large group are considered. Artist and patron must work out a compromise as to what is acceptable and also respects the aims of the artist. The patron in this case generally has the last word, as demonstrated by Richard Serra’s â€Å"Tilted Arc† controversy in the mid-80s where the artist’s piece was actually removed from its site because of public objection. However, nowadays the artist is insured against such damages, which was not the case in the beginning of the Renaissance, when artists were just starting to make a name for themselves. At this time, artists still depended greatly on patronage for a living and fought to distinguish themselves from the guild system. They still succumbed to religious guidelines and subject matter which generally limited their exploration of more personal means of expression, but with the rise of secular art collectors such as the Medici, we see a more modern artist-patron relationship emerging. By so distinguishing themselves in their field, patrons gave them certain leeway in commissions. Patrons and artists worked together, the patron outlining material, size, and general subject matter, but leaving aesthetic decisions concerning composition up to the best judgment of the artist--- the master--- himself.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although there is evidence of a lord-servant type of relationship between the patron and artist in several documents--- Domenico Venenziano writes to a lead Florentine patron, speaking of his â€Å"low condition† and how â€Å"duty-bound† he is to the patron ; Matteo de’ Pasti writes to his patron about specific details concerning the subject matter of a work, referring to himself as the patron’s â€Å"least servant† who wishes to obey his â€Å"master† ; Fra Filippo Lippi writes to Cosimo de’ Medici that he is â€Å"here entirely to be a slave to you† --- one must remember that Italy was still working out final kinks in a new middle-class-minded capitalist system, and dredges of the medieval system of feudalism still influenced aristocratic patrons. The artist could be building up trust and good relations so that he may be referred to other commissions and

Impact of Foreign Aid on Poverty and Economic Development in Nigeria

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION This project focuses on the poverty profile in Nigeria, the foreign aids given to the nation to help alleviate poverty and how it affects the economic development of Nigeria. According to the World Bank website, â€Å"poverty is hunger. It is lack of shelter. Poverty is being sick and not being able to see a doctor. It is not being able to go to school, not knowing how to read, and not being able to speak properly. Poverty is not having a job, and is fear for the future, and living one day at a time. It is losing a child to illness brought about by unclean water. And lastly, it is powerlessness, lack of representation and freedom. † Poverty is the inability to achieve a certain minimum standard of living. It is multidimensional, involving not only a lack of income, but also ill- health, illiteracy, lack of access to basic social services, and little opportunity to participate in processes that influence people’s lives. Mollie Orshansky, who developed the poverty measurements used by U. S government states that poverty is â€Å"to be poor is to be deprived of goods and services, and other pleasures that people around us take for granted† (Schwartz, 2005) Poverty is pervasive; as about 1. billion people in the world still live on less than a dollar a day and nearly 850 million people go hungry every night. (World Bank) According to Jhighan (2003), poverty is a misery-go-round plaguing the less developed countries. 1. 1BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY The poverty level in Nigeria; as described by the World Bank (1996) is a paradox tha t contradicts the immense wealth it has. Nigeria is a country endowed with human, agricultural, petroleum, gas and large untapped mineral resources. It earned over US$300 billion from just petroleum during the last three decades of the twentieth century. Rather than recoding remarkable progress in national, socio-economic development, Nigeria has retrogressed to being one of the 25 poorest countries of the 21st century while she was among the richest 50 in the early 70s. Nigeria enjoyed steady economic growth and relative stability in the 1960s and 70s especially with emergence of the mining industries. The per-capita income grew steadily and few people were between the poverty line as the agricultural public and industrial sectors absorbed a highest percentage of the labor force. In the early 1980s, severe economic crisis shook Nigeria bringing along with them real and perceived increases in the level of poverty in the country. This was due to factors such as declining prices of oil, the country’s main export, rises in the real international interest rates that compounded the external debt and subsequent slowing down of economic activities and growth. The major underlying cause of all these was domestic policy mistakes. (Aigbokhan, 2000) In 1980, poverty was regarded as a rural phenomenon but by 1985, it had spread to urban areas. This was due to the high rural urban migration that accompanied the impetus to development generated by oil revenues. Also, the collapse of oil exports income and massive importation of food to meet the production capacity in the agricultural sector severely affected urban dwellers. Economic reforms were introduced by the government in 1986; Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), which led to the removal of reduction of subsidies that were incidentally strategic to improving human welfare. Government spending on social services became dismal while the quality and quantity of public social services declined, especially in poor communities. Its social costs are reflected in increasing unemployment, cuts in social services, and general increases in the prices of basic commodities. The economic reform programme placed untold hardship on the vulnerable groups of the society such as the women, children and the aged, who make up a larger share of the poor. The standard of living of the general populace fell and led to poor access to food, shelter, education, health and other essentials of life. In 1992, urban poverty remained the same at 37. 5% while rural poverty reduced to 46%. By 1996, it was very obvious that urban poverty had become an increasing problem in Nigeria. For example, the number of people in poverty increased from 27% in 1980 to 46% in 1985. it declined slightly to 42% in 1992, and increased very sharply to 67% in 1996. In 1999, estimates showed that over 70% of Nigerians lived in poverty. The government then declared in November 1999 that the 470 billion naira budget for the year 2000 was â€Å"to relieve poverty. † By 1996, Nigeria had become the 13th poorest country in the world and occupied the 142nd rank on the human development index (HDI) scale. World Bank, 1996) With the reforms, the real growth became positive but there was still a question whether the reform alleviated poverty; how far poverty was reduced. Foreign aid is the economic help provided to communities of countries due to the occurrence of a humanitarian crisis or for the achievement of a socioeconomic objective. There are two types of aids: Humanitarian aid is the i mmediate assistance given to individuals, organizations or government for emergency relief caused by war or natural disasters. Development aid is help given by developed countries to support economic or social development in developing countries so as to create long term sustainable economic growth. The sources of foreign aids include bilateral and multilateral aids. Bilateral aid is given by the government of one country directly to another. Multilateral aid is aid from an international financial institution; such as the World Bank; the International Monetary Fund; the African, Asian and Inter-American Development Banks; the European Development Fund; and various United Nations agencies such as the United Nations Development Programme. These organizations are governed by individual contributing countries and capital markets. Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) also play a major role in distributing aids. Tied aid is the aid which the donor requires a recipient to spend some or all of its foreign aid on goods and services produced in the donor’s country. This process is called tying of aids. This can also be done by offering aid as subsidized credit for the purchase of its exports. Majority of the NGOs in Nigeria receive foreign aids from USAID (The United States Agency for International Development) USAID is an independent federal agency that receives overall foreign policy guidelines from the United States Secretary of State. It seeks to extend a helping hand to countries struggling for a better life, recovering from a disaster or striving to live. It supports economic growth, agriculture, trade, health, democracy, conflict prevention and humanitarian assistance. Other organizations in Nigeria also receive funds from USAID to undertake projects ranging from HIV/AIDS prevention to bringing solar energy to a rural village. On the other hand, Nigeria is currently not eligible to receive grants through the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC), which was established under President Bush as part of the â€Å"new agreement for global development. † Its mission is to reduce global poverty through promotion of sustainable economic growth. Before a country is eligible to receive assistance, MCC looks at their performance on 16 independent and transparent policy indicators. Nigeria is a country, strategically important to the U. S. and a country whose citizens are greatly in need. At the same time, it is a country whose government does not pass the test for receiving aid through the MCC. 1. 2STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Poverty is a persistent problem which has existed for a long time in Nigeria. A lot of policies have been applied to alleviate it but without much success. This research x-rays the contribution of foreign aids as a solution to thi s problem. The specific problems we will look at in this study are the causes of poverty and also how foreign aids can contribute to poverty reduction in the Nigerian economy. . 3OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The major objective of this study is to examine the effects of poverty and foreign aids given to us on the development of the economy. The study will focus on other micro objectives, which include: i. To analyze the poverty profile and discuss the national trends of poverty in Nigeria. ii. To review the causes, measures and impact of poverty on the GDP of Nigeria. iii. To identify the forms and roles of the foreign aids given to Nigeria. iv. To identify the relationship between foreign aids and poverty in the Nigerian economy. 4. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This study uses the theoretical framework employed by Ogbuaku, Adebisi and Feridun (2006) based on the neoclassical growth model by Barro (1991). It is based on a small open economy version of the Solow (1956)-Swan (1956) growth model. The decision to study foreign aid in an open economy, as opposed to a closed, is three fold. First, most of the economies that receive foreign aid must reasonably be considered small and open. Second, to the extent that international credit markets are imperfect, some forms of foreign aid can have a positive impact on the poor. Third, in our empirical work we provide statistical evidence to suggest that greater international openness and access to credit stimulates economic growth. 5. METHODOLOGY The data for this study will be mainly from secondary sources such as World Bank reports, Central Bank of Nigeria publications such as the CBN Economic and Financial Review Bullions, occasional papers, CBN annual reports and statement of accounts, Federal Office of Statistics (Statistical bulletin) and other relevant journals. This research makes use of econometrics in estimating the relationship between poverty, foreign aids and its contribution to the development of the Nigerian economy. The multiple regression technique is used in obtaining numerical estimates of the variables in different equations. This is because the computational procedure is a component of other estimation techniques. The estimation period will be from 1981 to 2007. 6. MODEL SPECIFICATION This study uses the theoretical framework employed by Ogbuaku, Adebisi and Feridun (2006) based on the neoclassical growth model by Barro (1991). They specify a simple model of poverty and globalization as follows: POV  =     ? 0+1 ? TRADE+ ? 2FDI+  µÃ‚  (1) This model is augmented to include the foreign aid element thus: POV  =      ? 0+ ? 1TRADE+ ? 2FDI + ? 3AID+  µ   Ã‚  Ã‚   (2) Where POV is the yearly average per capita income trade is import + export /gdp fdi is foreign direct investment aid is foreign aid  µ is the stochastic error term 7. RESEARCH QUESTIONS This research aims to answer the following questions: †¢ Has foreign aids flow reduced poverty? †¢ Does foreign aid achieve its basic objectives in its recipient countries? Does foreign aid lead to a positive, negative or no effect on growth and economic development? 8. HYPOTHESIS To carry out this study, the following hypothesis will be tested based on a model to be specified and formulated to determine the relationship between foreign aids and economic development. Hypothesis 1 H0: Foreign aids have no significant impact on the econom ic development of Nigeria. H1: Foreign aids have a significant impact on the economic development of Nigeria. 1. 9SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This significance of this project can be viewed from the perspective of using foreign aids to alleviate poverty and also develop our economy. It studies the poverty profile of the nation and shows how the proper allocation of foreign aids will help improve the development of our economy. 1. 10SCOPE/ LIMITATION OF THE STUDY The research work attempts to cover the effect of the foreign aids given on the Nigerian economy and its impact on the poverty level in our nation. It focuses on the empirical analysis of the relationship between poverty, foreign aids and inflation in Nigeria. The objectives of this study cannot be achieved without encountering either minor or major problems. The major limitations of the study are those that characterize the use of secondary data. They include errors of improper data collections, errors of omission, the problem of over or under estimation of estimates, etc. 11. CHAPTERIZATION Chapter one contains the introductory part; the background to the study, the statement of the problem, the objective of the study and the methodology used. Chapter two contains the literature review and theoretical framework. Chapter three explains the methodology and also includes the model specification. Chapter four covers the analysis of data. Chapter five discusses the summary and conclusion. 1. 12DEFINITION OF TERMS The key terms in this chapter include: Poverty: is the shortage of common things such as food, clothing, shelter and safe drinking water, all of which determine the quality of our life. Foreign aid: is the help provided to communities in the event of humanitarian crisis, or to achieve a socio economic objective. Economic development: is the qualitative change in economic wants, goods, incentives, institutions, productivity and knowledge or the â€Å"upward movement of the entire social system. † Gross Domestic Product (GDP): is the total final output of goods and services produced by a country’s economy, within the country’s territory. Human Development Index (HDI): is a composite index that ranks all countries based on three fundamental dimensions: longevity, educational attainment and standard of living. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1DEFINITION OF POVERTY Poverty comes in the form of deprivation. It is when there is lack of the means to satisfy basic needs. According to the Penguin Dictionary of Economics, poverty is â€Å"the situation faced by people whose material needs are least satisfied†. It also specifies that â€Å"poverty exists not merely because the needs of some low-income households are high. People are poverty – stricken when their living standard falls radically below the community average. This implies that, such people cannot have what the larger society regards as the minimum necessity for decency. Poverty is a living condition characterized by disease, illiteracy, malnutrition and squalor, to the extent that it inhibits the realization of potentials of individuals and even entire societies. It is therefore being regarded to as a socio-economic and political liability to any nation (Ekpo, 2000: 347). The poverty affects all aspects of a person’s life: susceptibility to disease, limited access to most types of services and information, lack of control over resources, subordination to higher social and economic classes, utter insecurity in the face of changing circumstances, including its psychological effect – the erosion of human dignity and self respect. The effects of poverty can not be over emphasized. It results into hunger, diseases, inadequate shelter and homelessness as part of the consequences of poverty. In our contemporary time, the poor man/woman has no voice in the society, lacks political influence, personal recognition; he is often emotionally and psychologically distressed and is always the downtrodden element in the society. (Fasoranti, 2008) 2. 2Concepts of Poverty Poverty is a multifaceted concept that manifests itself in different forms depending on the nature and content of human deprivation. It affects many aspects of human conditions, including; physical, moral and psychological. Poverty is so broad that the literature referring to the efforts of defining and estimating poverty is greater than the one concerning the strategies for overcoming poverty. The concept of poverty answers the question of what is a sufficient degree of needs satisfaction and how it is established. Different criteria have been used to conceptualize poverty. Most analysis view poverty as a result of insufficient income for securing basic goods and services. Others view it as a function of education, life expectancy, health, and child mortality, etc. According to Blackwood and Lynch (1994), poverty can be identified using the criteria of levels of consumption and expenditure. Sen (1983) relates poverty to entitlements, which are taken to be the various bundles of goods and services over which one has command, taking into cognizance the means by which such goods are acquired. Poverty can also arise as a result of inefficient use of common resources which is due to weak policy, environment, inadequate infrastructure, and weak access to technology, credit, etc. Poverty can also be described as structural or transient. Structural poverty (chronic poverty) is defined as persistent or permanent socio-economic deprivations. It is linked to factors such as lack of skills for gainful employment, limited productive resources, gender, endemic socio-political and cultural factors. Transient poverty, on the other hand, is defined as temporary or transitory and is linked to natural and man-made disasters. Transient poverty is more reversible but can become structural if it persists. Poverty was also conceptualized by Steeten and Burki (1978); broadly into four ways. They include: †¢ Lack of access to basic needs or goods; †¢ Lack of or impaired access to productive resources; †¢ Outcome of inefficient use of common resources; and †¢ A result of â€Å"exclusive mechanisms†. 3. CAUSES OF POVERTY Many different factors have been cited to explain why poverty occurs; but none of them has been able to gain universal acceptance. Possible factors include: Economic factors: 1. Recession: In general, the major fluctuations in poverty rates over time are driven by the business cycle. Poverty rates increase in recessions and decline in booms. Extreme recessions, such as the Great Depression have a particularly large impact on poverty. In 1933, 25% of all workers and 37% of all non-farm workers in the United States were unemployed. In New York, one child in every five was hungry. 2. Economic inequality: Even if average income is high, poverty rate will also be high if incomes are distributed unevenly. However the evidence on the relationship between absolute poverty rates and inequality is mixed and ensitive to the inequality index used. For example, while many Sub-Saharan African countries have both high inequality and high poverty rates, other countries, such as India have low inequality and high poverty rates. In general the extent of poverty is much more closely related to average income than it is to the variance in its distribution. At the same time some research indicates that countries which start with a more equitable distribution of income find it easier to eradicate poverty through economic growth. In addition to income inequality, an unequal distribution of land can also contribute to high levels of poverty. 3. Food prices and Poverty: Poor people spend a greater portion of their budgets on food than rich people. As a result poor households and those within the poverty threshold can be particularly vulnerable to increases in food prices. For example in late 2007 increases in the price of grains led to food riots in some countries. Decreases in food prices can also affect poverty although they tend to impact a different group – small farmers – than food price increases. 4. Democracy and Poverty: When we look at social dimensions of development, access to drinking water, girls' literacy, and health care are starkly divergent. For example, in terms of life expectancy, rich democracies typically enjoy life expectancies that are at least nine years longer than poor autocracies. Opportunities of finishing secondary school are 40 percent higher. Infant mortality rates are 25 percent lower. Agricultural yields are about 25 percent higher, on average, in poor democracies than in poor autocracies—an important fact, given that 70 percent of the population in poor countries is often rural-based. Poor democracies don't spend any more on their health and education sectors as a percentage of GDP than do poor autocracies, nor do they get higher levels of foreign assistance. They don't run up higher levels of budget deficits. They simply manage the resources that they have more effectively. † 5. Welfare states and Poverty: Currently modern, expansive welfare states that ensure economic opportunity, independence and security in a near universal manner are still the exclusive domain of the developed nations, ommonly constituting at least 20% of GDP, with the largest Scandinavian welfare states constituting over 40% of GDP. These modern welfare states, which largely arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, seeing their greatest expansion in the mid 20th century, and have proven themselves highly effective in reducing relative as well as absolute poverty in all analyzed high-income OECD countries. †¢ The governance effectiveness of governments has a major impact on the delivery of socioeconomic outcomes for poor populations †¢ Weak rule of law can discourage investment and thus perpetuate poverty. Poor management of resource revenues can mean that rather than lifting countries out of poverty, revenues from such activities as oil production or gold mining actually leads to a resource curse. †¢ Failure by governments to provide essential infrastructure worsens poverty. †¢ Poor access to affordable education traps individuals and countries in cycles of poverty. †¢ High levels of corruption undermine efforts to make a sustainable impact on poverty. In Nigeria, for example, more than $400 billion was stolen from the treasury by Nigeria's leaders between 1960 and 1999 (Ribadu,2007) 6. Environmental Degradation: In  many  parts  of  the  world, environmental degradation—the deterioration of the natural environment, including the atmosphere, bodies of water, soil, and forests—is an important cause of poverty. Environmental problems have led to shortages of food, clean water, materials for shelter, and other essential resources. As forests, land, air, and water are degraded, people who live directly off these natural resources suffer most from the effects. People in developed countries, on the other hand, have technologies and conveniences such as air and water filters, efined fuels, and industrially produced and stored foods to buffer themselves from the effects of environmental degradation. Global  environmental  degradation may result from a variety of factors, including overpopulation and the resulting overuse of land and other resources. Intensive farming, for instance, depletes soil fertility, thus decreasing crop yields. Environment al degradation also results from pollution. Polluting industries include mining, power generation, and chemical production. Other major sources of pollution include automobiles and agricultural fertilizers. In  developing  countries, deforestation has had particularly devastating environmental effects. Many rural people, particularly in tropical regions, depend on forests as a source of food and other resources, and deforestation damages or eliminates these supplies. Forests also absorb many pollutants and water from extended rains; without forests, pollution increases and massive flooding further decreases the usability of the deforested areas. 2. 4MEASUREMENT OF POVERTY/INDICATORS Poverty is usually measured as either absolute or relative poverty (the latter is actually an index of income inequality). . 4. 1Absolute poverty: This refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. An example of an absolute measurement would be the percentage of the population eating less food than is required to sustain the human body (approximately 2000-2500 calories per day for an adult male). The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than US $1. 25 (PPP) per day, and moderate poverty as less than $2 a day. Estimating that in 2001, 1. 1 billion people had consumption levels below $1 a day and 2. 7 billion lived on less than $2 a day. Other absolute poverty indicators include: Life expectancy: According to Encarta encyclopedia, it is the average length of life that would be observed in a population in which the currently prevailing mortality risks at each age continued indefinitely. Infant mortality: Infant mortality rate is the probability of death in the first year of life, usually stated as a number per 1,000 births. 2. 4. 2Relative poverty: According to Wikipedia, relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context, hence relative poverty is a measure of income inequality. Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of population with income less than some fixed proportion of median income. There are several other different income inequality metrics, for example the Gini coefficient or the Theil Index. Relative poverty measures are used as official poverty rates in several developed countries. As such these poverty statistics measure inequality rather than material deprivation or hardship. The measurements are usually based on a person's yearly income and frequently take no account of total wealth. The main poverty line used in the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European Union is based on â€Å"economic distance†, a level of income set at 50% of the median household income. 2. 5Social Aspects of poverty Analysis of social aspects of poverty links conditions of scarcity to aspects of the distribution of resources and power in a society and recognizes that poverty may be a function of the diminished â€Å"capability† of people to live the kinds of lives they value. The social aspects of poverty may include lack of access to information, education, health care, or political power. Poverty may also be understood as an aspect of unequal social status and inequitable social relationships, experienced as social exclusion, dependency, and diminished capacity to participate, or to develop meaningful connections with other people in society. The World Bank's â€Å"Voices of the Poor,† based on research with over 20,000 poor people in 23 countries, identifies a range of factors which poor people identify as part of poverty. These include: †¢ Precarious livelihoods †¢ Excluded locations †¢ Physical limitations †¢ Gender relationships Problems in social relationships †¢ Lack of security †¢ Abuse by those in power †¢ Disempowering institutions †¢ Limited capabilities †¢ Weak community organizations 2. 6 FOREIGN AID The standard definition of foreign aid comes from the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which defines foreign aids as financial flows, technical assistance, and commodities that are; designed to promote economic development and welfare as their main objective and are provided as either grants or subsidized loans. . 6. 1Humanitarian aid Humanitarian aid or emergency aid is rapid assistance given to people in immediate distress by individuals, organizations, or governments to relieve suffering, during and after man-made emergencies (like wars) and natural disasters. The term often carries an international connotation, but this is not always the case. It is often distinguished from development aid by being focused on relieving suffering caused by natural disaster or conflict, rather than removing the root causes of poverty or vulnerability. The provision of humanitarian aid consists of the provision of vital services (such as food aid to prevent starvation) by aid agencies, and the provision of funding or in-kind services (like logistics or transport), usually through aid agencies or the government of the affected country. Humanitarian aid is distinguished from humanitarian intervention, which involves armed forces protecting civilians from violent oppression or genocide by state-supported actors. The Geneva Conventions give a mandate to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and other impartial humanitarian organizations to provide assistance and protection of civilians during times of war. The ICRC has been given a special role by the Geneva Conventions with respect to the visiting and monitoring of prisoners of war. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) is mandated to coordinate the international humanitarian response to a natural disaster or complex emergency acting on the basis of the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 46/182. The Sphere Project handbook, Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, which was produced by a coalition of leading non-governmental humanitarian agencies, lists the following principles of humanitarian action: †¢ The right to life with dignity. †¢ The distinction between combatant and non-combatants. †¢ The principle of non-refoulement. 2. 6. 2Development aid Development aid is aid given by developed countries to support development in general which can be economic development or social development in developing countries. It is distinguished from humanitarian aid as being aimed at alleviating poverty in the long term, rather than alleviating suffering in the short term. The term â€Å"development aid† is often used to refer specifically to Official Development Assistance (ODA), which is aid given by governments on certain concessional terms. It is given by governments through individual countries' international aid agencies and through multilateral institutions such as the World Bank, and by individuals through development charities such as Action Aid, Caritas, Care International or Oxfam. In terms of dollars, the United States has consistently being the world’s largest donor (except in the mid-1990s when Japan briefly topped the list). In 2004, the U. S provided $19. 7 billion in ODA, with Japan, France, the United Kingdom, and Germany as the next largest donors, (including OA, the U. S provided a total of $21. 3 billion). However, when aid is measured as a share of donor income, the most generous donors are Norway, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Sweden, each of which provided between 0. 79- 0. 92% of GDP in 2004. Saudi Arabia provided aid equivalent to about 0. 9% of its income. The United States is one of the smallest donors by this measure at about 0. 17 percent of U. S income in 2004, just over half of the 1970 level of 0. 32% and less than one-third of the U. S average during the 1960s. Donors have pledged since the 1960s to devote 0. 7% of their income as aid, most recently at Financing for Development Conference in Monterrey, Mexico in March 20 02, but only a handful of small donors have achieved this level of aid. The offer to give development aid has to be understood in the context of the Cold War. The speech in which Harry Truman announced the foundation of NATO is also a fundamental document of development policy: â€Å"in addition, we will provide military advice and equipment to free nations which will cooperate with us in the maintenance of peace and security. Fourth, we must embark on a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas. More than half the people of the world are living in conditions approaching misery. Their food is inadequate. They are victims of disease. Their economic life is primitive and stagnant. Their poverty is a handicap and a threat both to them and to more prosperous areas. For the first time in history, humanity possesses the knowledge and skill to relieve the suffering of these people. † 2. 6. 3Specific types of Aid †¢ Project aid: Aid is given for a specific purpose e. g. building materials for a new school. †¢ Programme aid: Aid is given for a specific sector e. g. funding of the education sector of a country. †¢ Budget support: A form of programme aid that is directly channeled into the financial system of the recipient country. †¢ Sector wide Approaches (SWAPs): A combination of Project aid and Programme aid/Budget Support e. . support for the education sector in a country will include both funding of education projects (like school buildings) and provide funds to maintain them (like school books). †¢ Food aid: Food is given to countries in urgent need of food supplies, especially if they have just experienced a natural disaster. â₠¬ ¢ Untied Aid: The country receiving the aid can spend the money as they chose. It improves the government’s inter-temporal fiscal balance. †¢ Tied aid: The aid must be used to purchase products from the country that donated it or a specified group of countries. It always lead to deterioration, thus suggesting a potential tradeoff between consumer welfare and government solvency in the latter case. (Chatterjee and Turnovsky;2005) †¢ Technical assistance: Educated personnel, such as doctors are moved into developing countries to assist with a program of development. Can be both programme and project aid. OECD Categories The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development's Development Assistance Committee puts foreign aid into three categories: †¢ Official Development Assistance (ODA): is the largest, consisting of aid provided by donor governments to low- and middle- income countries. Official Aid (OA): is aid provided by governments to richer countries with per capita incomes higher than approximately $9000 for three consecutive years; and to countries that were formerly part of the Soviet Union or its satellites. †¢ Other Official Flows (OFF): Aid which does not fall into the other two categories, either because it is not aimed at development, or it consists of more than 75% loan (rather than grant). 2. 7 POVERTY AND ECONOMIC GROWTH The impact on poverty on economic growth is problematic and is not clear. It is indicated that effective anti-poverty action is difficult to achieve largely because the poverty problem is multidimensional, complex and location specific deeply rooted into the social fabric and distribution of economic and political power (Tarp, 2000). One implication of these is that donors as well as analysts of the impact of aid on poverty need to be realistic about the severity of the difficulties that are likely to be encountered and the scale of effort needed to overcome poverty. Most evaluations have shown that achievements in this area are modest at best. In general, it was found that there is a wide gap between the stated commitments to poverty reduction and the actual practices of reducing poverty in the field. Most donors have paid little attention to conceptualization and analysis of poverty and have been particularly weak in translating the poverty reduction objective into operational guidance and in their country assistance strategies. Similar pitfall applies to most analysis of the impact of aid on poverty. The main instruments of donor intervention has been a series of ad hoc projects and in these improvements have been observed over time in respect of participation by beneficiaries and gender sensitivity but few donors have been concerned about sustainability. 2. 8FOREIGN AID AND ECONOMIC GROWTH Most foreign aid is designed to meet one or more of four broad economic and development objectives. †¢ To stimulate economic growth through building infrastructure, supporting productive sectors such as agriculture, or bringing new ideas and technologies; †¢ To strengthen education, health, environmental or political systems; To support subsistence consumption of food and other commodities, especially during relief operations and humanitarian crises; †¢ To help stabilize an economy following economic shocks. Despite these objectives for aid, economic growth has always been the main yardstick used to judge aid’s effectiveness, with more aid expected to lead to faster growt h. But at a broad level, there is no apparent simple relationship between aid and growth. The absence of a simple relationship means that for some observers, it is an evidence of a failure of aid to achieve its basic objectives. But for others, it is misleading, as other factors affect both aid and growth. Not surprisingly, the views on the economic impact of foreign aid on poor countries turn out to be highly divided. Some papers, e. g. Rwabutomize(2008) and Cato Institute (2004)) totally oppose the notion that foreign aid has beneficial effects on developing economies and even go as far as saying they indeed hinder growth. Others like Karras (2006), Durbarry, Gemmell & Greenaway (2004) and Wangwe (2004) find a positive relationship between the two. Yet a lot of research finds conditional relationships between the two variables. This section gives a summary of the views from the examined relevant and available literature on this subject. 2. 9Economic impact of foreign aid in theory The impact of foreign aid on recipient countries’ economies has been a subject of research and debate among scholars and policymakers for more than five decades. There are two obvious stands in the literature of foreign aid effectiveness: one argues that foreign aid spurs growth and development of the recipient countries while the other opposes this view by arguing that aid crowds out savings and investments and thus slows down economic growth. There is also another stand that proposes that foreign aid has a conditional relationship with growth, accelerating growth only under some certain circumstances. A possible reason for the high variability of opinions on the benefits of foreign aid is that there is no generally accepted theory on the workings of foreign aid. Frameworks like the gap theory have been widely criticized in contemporary research leaving the employed frameworks highly subjective. Simon (1987) offers five criteria for economic aid disbursement. First, the recipient person or nation â€Å"needs† the help. Second, the recipient wants the help. Third, the gift will not have bad effects in the long run on the recipient or others. Fourth, the charity will be used more-or-less efficiently rather than largely wastefully or simply to obtain more money in a pyramid scheme. Fifth, the charity will not be useless to the giver. In addition, a lot of the conditional relationship between foreign aid and economic development is premised on differentiation of foreign aid categories. For instance, Annen and Kosempel (2007) differentiate between foreign aid as technical assistance (TA) and non-technical assistance (NTA). They believe that the policies which will be most effective in reducing international income disparities will be the ones that help reduce the productivity gap, and this is exactly what technical assistance is intended to do. They also explained that when foreign aid takes the form of technical assistance, it can have important effects on improving economic conditions in poor countries; at least when it is administered efficiently. Chatterjee and Turnovsky (2005) in their work classified foreign aid into ‘tied’ and ‘untied’. They posit that the link between foreign aid, economic growth, and welfare depends crucially on the mechanism through which a particular aid program, whether tied or untied, is absorbed by the recipient economy. 2. 9. 1Dissenting views On the other hand, the Cato Institute (2004) actually proffers negative economic impact. In their opinion: †¢ There is no correlation between aid and growth. †¢ Aid that goes into a poor policy environment doesn’t work and contributes to debt. †¢ Aid conditioned on market reforms has been a failure. †¢ Countries that have adopted market-oriented policies have done so because of factors unrelated to aid. There is a strong relationship between economic freedom and growth. †¢ Even aid intended to advance market liberalization can produce undesirable results. Such aid takes the pressure off recipient governments and allows them to postpone, rather than promote, necessary but politically difficult reforms. Easterly (2003) cha llenges the growth gap theory usually used to justify increase in foreign aid. He states that the â€Å"financing gap† model in which aid increases investment and that investment increases economic growth has dubious theoretical foundations and numerous empirical failings. It assumes a stable linear relationship between investment and growth over the short to medium term but there are sound reasons to doubt whether the incremental capital-output ratio is constant and thus whether the relationship from investment to growth is linear. A second key assumption of the model in which aid fills a financing gap and allows greater investment is that aid will actually finance investment rather than consumption. This assumption will hold true only if investment is liquidity-constrained and incentives to invest were favourable. Another opponent of the gap theory is Erixon (2005). He carried out a literature analysis of aid and economic growth by examining case studies of countries who have received considerable amounts of aid. He also contends that the reason countries are poor is not that they lack infrastructure; roads, railways, dams, schools or health clinics. Rather, it is because they lack the institutions of the free society: property rights, the rule of law, free markets, and limited government. He maintains that even in the face of sound policy, foreign aid fails to have the desired effect. According to him, there is much evidence supporting the view that aid largely has backed political regimes with little interest in growth and development. It would be much more sensible to scale back the levels of aid considerably; provide aid only to governments that are already reforming and agree to continue reforms; and make clear that aid will be available only for a strictly limited period. M’Amanja & Morrissey (2004), in their study contend with foreign aid–economic growth relationships based on the often wrong theoretical assumptions used as a basis for it. With respect to the stipulations of endogenous growth theory, high investment ratios do not necessarily lead to rapid economic growth; the quality of investment, its productivity, existence of appropriate policy, political, and social infrastructure are all determinants of the effectiveness of investment. Time series was used to investigate this relationship in the Kenyan economy. They focused on one element of growth and used a multivariate approach on time series data for Kenya over the period 1964 – 2002 to investigate the growth effects of foreign aid, investment and a measure of international trade. In addition, some opposition to foreign aid comes from social biases. An example is Mutambara (2008) who claims that although the stated intention is ostensibly to assist the poor economies, most foreign aid benefits the donor countries. The modus operandi has been that the rich West provides financial assistance or loans to poor nations to engage Western consultants or institutions to carry out unsustainable and useless projects on the continent. As a result, there is minimum benefit to the African country while the money is recycled back via western institutions. The Cato Institute (2004) gave its position based on economic freedom. They assert that the greater a country’s economic freedom, the greater its level of prosperity over time. Economic freedom, which includes not only policies, such as free trade and stable money, but also institutions, such as the rule of law and the security of private property rights, does not only increase income. It is also strongly related to improvements in other development indicators such as longevity, access to safe drinking water, lower corruption, and lower poverty rates. Radelet (2006) examines aid magnitudes and who gives and receives aid. It discusses the multiple motivations and objectives of aid, some of which conflict with each other. It then explores the empirical evidence on the relationship between aid and growth, which is divided between research that finds no relationship and research that finds a positive relationship (at least under certain circumstances). It also examines some of the key challenges in making aid more effective, including the principal-agent problem and the related issue of conditionality, and concludes by examining some of the main proposals for improving aid effectiveness. Karras (2006) investigates the relationship between foreign aid and growth in per capita GDP using annual data from the 1960 to 1997 period for a sample of 71 aid-receiving developing economies. More specific studies like Asiedu and Nandwa (2004) focused on whether foreign aid in education has a significant effect on growth. In carrying out their study on the effect of foreign education aid they took into consideration the heterogeneous nature of aid as well as the heterogeneity of aid recipients—they disaggregated the aid data into primary, secondary and higher education, and ran separate regressions for low income and middle income countries. Neanidis and Varvarigos (2005) examined the effects of aid transfers and their degree of volatility (different kinds of variability) on economic growth. They conducted regression analysis for a panel of 74 aid-recipient countries over the time period from 1972 to 1998. Bhandari et al. (2007) carried out a region specific study the effectiveness of foreign aid and foreign direct investment in the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. They used a model that includes the labour force, capital stock, foreign aid and foreign direct investment, and is estimated using pooled annual time series data from 1993 to 2002. Before carrying out the estimation, the time series properties of the data were diagnosed and an error-correction model was developed and estimated using a fixed-effects estimator. Inanga and Mandah (2008) examines the role of two foreign aid financing agencies, Enterprise Development Fund (EDF) and Export Development Programme (EDP), in promoting Zambia’s economic growth in a country study. They assessed and analysed the impact of each of them on the growth and development of different sectors of the Zambian economy. The sector impact analysis included manufacturing, agriculture, transport, and institutional capacities. Al Khaldi (2008) analyses the trend and impact of foreign aid on the economic development of Jordan during the period 1990-2005 using for this purpose different statistical techniques. Chatterjee and Turnovsky (2005) introduced two crucial aspects of this mechanism that have been absent from previous work: the importance of the endogeneity of labor supply as an additional margin through which foreign aid may impact on macroeconomic performance; and the role played by the interaction of labor supply and public capital; and externalities associated with public capital accumulation in determining an economy’s response to a foreign aid shock. They suggest that when donors decide on whether a particular aid program should be tied to an investment activity, careful attention should be paid to the recipient’s opportunities for substitution in production, the elasticity of labour supply, and production externalities. It is perfectly possible for a tied transfer to have a presumably unintended adverse effect on the recipient economy, if that economy is structurally different from what the donor perceived. Durbarry, Gemmell and Greenaway (2004) assessed the impact of foreign aid on growth for a large sample of developing countries. They used an augmented Fischer-Easterly type model and estimated this using both cross-section and panel data techniques. This allowed them to identify not only the ceteris paribus growth effects of aid using an established conditioning set of policy variables, but also to assess the robustness of this set to the inclusion of aid, and other forms of, investment finance among the growth determinants. Annen and Kosempel (2007) tested the hypothesis that the effectiveness of aid depends on its level of fragmentation. The study presented a theoretical growth model for a small open economy that was capable of identifying the appropriate specification required for an aid-growth regression. 2. Empirical findings Annen and Kosempel (2007) found that non technical aid (NTA) has no statistically significant impact on growth; but technical aid (TA) has a positive and significant impact, except in countries where it is highly fragmented. A possible explanation for this result is that the savings rate applied to NTA is low, and therefore most of these resources are used to finance consumption instead of investment. Although the policy interaction term for NTA was found to be positive, as expected; the partial impact of NTA conditional on policy was found not to be statistically significant for any policy level. When aid takes the form of TA our results showed that it has a strong positive and statistically significant impact on economic performance. Specifically, their estimates show that for the average developing economy a 25% increase in TA will lead to about a quarter percentage point increase in its yearly growth rate. Their estimates indicate that when the level of fragmentation is high – above 73%, the partial impact of TA on growth is zero or even negative, depending on the estimation procedure. Asiedu and Nandwa (2004) also gave a conditional aid – growth relationship. They report that the effect of aid varies by income as well as by the type of aid. These results underscore the importance of the heterogeneity of aid flows as well as the heterogeneity of recipient countries when analyzing the effect of aid on growth. Aid depends on the level of development of the recipient country (low and middle income) as well as the level of education at which aid is being targeted (primary, secondary or higher). Aid in primary education enhances growth in low income countries but aid in post-primary education has no significant effect. For middle income countries, aid in primary education and secondary education has an adverse effect on growth but aid in higher education enhances growth. Thus, their results highlight the importance of taking into account the heterogeneity of aid and the heterogeneity of the recipient countries when analyzing aid-growth relationships. Sound policy is another condition given for aid to be beneficial. In the view of Al Khaldi (2008), policies are also important in the effectiveness of the foreign capital inflow, as aid has a more positive impact on growth with good fiscal, monetary and trade policies. In the presence of poor policies, on the other hand, aid has no positive effect on growth. Accordingly, there is a need of not only good policies but also the implementation of these policies as well as the proper monitoring of the aid -utilizing projects is necessary in order to avoid the mis-utilization and the mismanagement of the foreign capital resources. However, according to M’Amanja & Morrissey (2004), aid in the form of net external loans is found to have a significant negative impact on long run growth. Private investment relates to government investment and imports negatively, but positively to foreign aid though they note that the negative association between aid and growth may be due to their use of aid loans rather than grants.. Private investment has been a consistently strong determinant of growth both in the short- and long- run. The implication here is that in order to stimulate and sustain economic growth in Kenya, policy makers need to pay closer attention to factors that determine private investment. However, some findings disregard these conditions and oppose the benefits of foreign aid altogether. The results from Bhandari et al. (2007) indicate that an increase in the stock of domestic capital and inflow of foreign direct investment are significant factors that positively affect economic growth in these countries. Foreign aid did not seem to have any significant effect on real GDP. Rwabutomize (2008) reports that empirical findings reveal that foreign aid has no impact on economic growth amongst the low-income economies under investigation within the Sub-Sahara Africa region from 1990-2004. He concludes that the growth process of poor economies have not benefited from the official development assistance (foreign aid) inflows and increasing aid will not have a positive impact of growth either. Thus these economies should rely on other development resources other than foreign aid such as their domestic savings and tax revenues. Radelet (2006) came up with similar conclusions. Aid can keep bad governments in power for too long, and can undermine incentives for saving, tax collection, and private sector production. Aid relationships are made much more difficult by a complex chain of principal-agent problems that weaken information flows, introduce myriad motivations for different actors, and make monitoring and accountability more difficult. Inanga and Mangah (2008) in their study support these findings. According to them, although Zambia has, on the average, received aid of about US$ 514 million annually over the past three decades, its per capita income has declined from US$1,251 in he early 1970s to about US$ 600 in the late 1990s. They concluded that although it may be difficult to separate the effects of foreign aid finance from those of other growth-inducing factors, efficient and effective utilization of foreign aid finance can contribute to growth in a stable macroeconomic environment. As stated already, not all findings opposed the notion of beneficial foreign aid. The results from Karras (2006) show that the effect of foreign aid on economic growth is positive, permanent, statisticall y signi? ant, and sizable: raising foreign aid by $20 per person of the receiving country results in a permanent increase in the growth rate of real GDP per capita by approximately 0. 16 per cent. Using an alternative foreign-aid measure, a permanent increase in aid by 1 per cent of the receiving economies GDP permanently raises the per capita growth rate by 0. 14 to 0. 26 per cent. Wangwe (2009) states that a survey of three generations of empirical work found a consistent pattern of results. It found that aid increases aggregate savings, aid increases investment and there is a positive relationship between aid and growth in reduced form models. In Durbarry, Gemmell and Greenaway (2004) results vary according to income level, levels of aid allocation and geographical location. They report a positive coefficient on foreign aid as defined by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (FAIDOECD) in 1993 as a percentage of the gross domestic product (GDP), significant at 10%. Point estimates indicate that raising the aid/GDP (or domestic savings/GDP) ratio by one percentage point raises the growth rate by about 0. 10 percentage points. Finally, adopting an alternative measure of foreign aid – aid per capita – yields similar results, confirming a positive and significant impact on growth. Panel data also yields similar results. And lastly according to Neanidis and Varvarigos (2005), on the one hand, devoting aid inflows into productive public spending promotes growth while the related volatility has a damaging effect. On the other hand, the non-productive use of aid transfers has an adverse effect on growth while their volatility is growth-enhancing. They proffer that the general onclusion emerging from their analysis can be summarized as follows: when aid is used productively (unproductively) it has, on average, a positive (negative) effect on growth while its respective volatility has a negative (positive) growth effect. Our results propose that recipient countries should allocate the aid they receive on the most productive uses, while donors should make sure that aid provision is the least erratic p ossible. 2. 10 DEFINITION OF TERMS Economic growth: For the purpose of this study, economic growth will be represented by the annual Gross Domestic Product at current factor cost. Labour force: Labour in this context consists of the number of people aged 15 and over who are employed (that is those who currently have jobs). Individuals who do not fall into either of these groups such as the unemployed, retired people and discouraged workers are not included in the calculation of the labour force. Unemployment: The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines unemployment as the proportion of the labour force which was available for work but did not work for at least one hour in the week preceding the survey period. However, the definition used here is that of the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), Nigeria. The NBS defines unemployment as the proportion of the labour force that is available for work but did not work for at least 39 hours in the week preceding the survey period. Foreign Aid: is the economic help provided to communities of countries due to the occurrence of a humanitarian crisis or for the achievement of a socioeconomic objective. Foreign direct investment (FDI): FDI is an investment in real assets where real assets consist of physical things such as factories, land, capital goods, infrastructure and inventories. CHAPTER THREE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY . 1INTRODUCTION The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between foreign aid and economic growth in Nigeria. This section starts with a theoretical framework then continues with a description of the model to be used for quantitative analysis. The regression is run using Ordinary least squares technique. The theoretical framework of this study is taken from theories, concepts, views and models. 3. 2TH EORETICAL FRAMEWORK This study uses the theoretical framework employed by Ogbuaku, Adebisi and Feridun (2006) based on the neoclassical growth model by Barro (1991). It is based on a small open economy version of the Solow (1956)-Swan (1956) growth model. The decision to study foreign aid in an open economy, as opposed to a closed, is three fold. First, most of the economies that receive foreign aid must reasonably be considered small and open. Second, to the extent that international credit markets are imperfect, some forms of foreign aid can have a positive impact on the poor. Third, in our empirical work we provide statistical evidence to suggest that greater international openness and access to credit stimulates economic growth. The two-gap model can also be employed. The first gap is the gap between the amount of investment necessary to attain a certain growth rate and the available domestic saving. Easterly (2003) examined the investment-savings gap. It goes thus: economic growth depends on investment as a share of GDP, adjusted by a factor that reveals whether investment is of high or poor quality. The amount of investment will be the sum of domestic savings and foreign aid. The model of the â€Å"financing gap† approach thus makes two key assumptions. First, it assumes the above stable linear relationship between investment and growth over the short to medium run. This assumption grows out of a Leontief-style production function with fixed requirements for capital and labour per unit of output. A second key assumption of the model in which aid fills a financing gap and allows greater investment is that aid will actually finance investment rather than consumption. This assumption will hold true only if investment is liquidity-constrained and incentives to invest were favourable. If the cause of low investment is due to poor incentives to invest, then aid will not increase investment. (Easterly, 2003) . 3 RESTATEMENT OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS H0: Foreign aid has no significant impact on the reduction of poverty and hence the economic growth of Nigeria. H1: Foreign aid has a significant impact on the reduction of poverty and the economic growth of Nigeria. 3. 4 RESEARH DESIGN 3. 4. 1MODEL SPECIFICATION This study uses the theoretical framework employed by Ogbuaku, Adebisi and Feridun (2006) based on the neoclassical growth model by Barro (1991). The y specify a simple model of poverty and globalization as follows: POV  =     ? 0+1 ? TRADE+ ? FDI+  µÃ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(1) This model is augmented to include the foreign aid element thus: POV =      ? 0+ ? 1TRADE+ ? 2FDI + ? 3AID+  µÃ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(2) Where POV is the yearly average per capita income trade is import + export /gdp fdi is foreign direct investment aid is foreign aid  µ is the stochastic error term 2. SOURCES OF DATA The analysis will be based on time series data of AID, TRADE, FDI and POV for the Nigerian economy for the period 1981 – 2007. These are secondary data collected from publications of Central Bank of Nigeria such as statistical bulletin and annual reports. 4. METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS As stated in the introduction to this study, the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) method of regression analysis is used in this research work. The OLS is one of the most commonly employed and most important methods in estimating relationships in econometrics. Furthermore, to contain the problems associated with time series data, a unit root test; the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test, is employed to test for stationarity. Other methods applied include Johansen co-integration and error correction model. 3. 5. 1Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test is used to test the stationarity in time series. Stationarity refers to the constancy in mean and variance of time series over a period of time. This will enable us to know if there is co-movement in time series in long run equilibrium. It is the augmented version of the Dickey-Fuller test for a larger and more complicated set of time series model. Stationarity test reveals the presence or absence of random-walk (unit root) in regression analysis. If the time series are non-stationary it means that our regression is spurious and as such estimates cannot be used to predict future values. The time series can then be adjusted in order to make them stationary. The augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) statistic used in the test is a negative number. The more negative it is, the stronger the rejections of the hypothesis that there is a unit root at some level of confidence. 3. 5. 2Johansen Co-integration This especially has been developed to overcome the problems of spurious regression which is associated with non-stationary time series data, in such instances, econometric results may not be ideal for policy making. The theory of co-integration arises out of the need to integrate short run dynamics with long run equilibrium. In cases where the data series exhibit the presence of unit roots, short-run dynamics properties of the model can only be captured in an error correction model when the existence of co-integration has been established. On this note, if variable are co-integrated, it shows that such variable possess the capacity to reach equilibrium in the long run. 5. LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY Using economic growth as a measure of the influence of foreign aid on poverty in Nigeria assumes that there is adequate distribution of wealth in the Nigerian economy such that gains in economic output is transmitted to poor areas. It is possible that this is not the case. In addition, it is necessary to note that the use of regression techniques always comes with limitations. The first is the common warning that correlation does not mean causation. Therefore, even if a relationship is established between the examined variables, this does not guarantee that the occurrence of one necessitates the occurrence of the other. CHAPTER FOUR EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA 4. 1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, the statistical data gathered during the course of this research work is subjected to investigation and analysis. The chapter starts with the brief explanation of various criteria for decision making, followed by the analysis of the static regression equation. In order to test for the presence of unit root (i. e. , spuriousness) in the static regression equation, stationarity test would be conducted using Augmented Dickey Fuller Test (ADF), while co-integration test using Johansen Co-integration test would also be conducted in order to establish the long-run co-movement among the variables. Finally, the error correction model will be used to test the relationships between the variables. . DECISION MAKING CRITERIA The following criteria for decision making are used in the analysis. Coefficient of determination (R2): The R-squa